Eli Muus
Norwegian can express causal relations both with causative verbs and with complex causative constructions. The causatives can be grouped based on their syntactic and semantic properties. In the Typecraft text ‘Collection of Norwegian Causatives’ I have grouped the causatives in two main groups: Simplex Causatives and Complex Causatives. Simplex causatives are causative verbs. These verbs all show a causative valence alternation, between a non-causative version and a causative version. When the verb is used in its causative version, it assigns one more thematic role (the causer) than when it is used in its non-causative version. I illustrate:
Non-causative version:
Kaffen koker.
“The coffee is boiling.”
| Kaffen |
| kaff | en |
| coffee | DEF |
| NMASC |
Causative version:
Jeg koker kaffen.
“I boil the coffee.”
| kaffen |
| kaff | en |
| coffee | DEF |
| NMASC |
The complex causatives are complex constructions where verbs like: ask, make, let and get express the causal relation between the causer and the causee (the causee is not always expressed). I illustrate:
Jeg får ham til å re opp sengen.
“I make him make the bed.”
| sengen |
| seng | en |
| bed | SGDEF |
| Ncomm |
Both the simplex and complex causatives are further divided into subgroups based on their semantics.
Simplex Causatives
The simplex causatives are divided into three groups based on the properties of the verb: verbs describing position, natural process verbs and inchoative verbs.
The verbs describing position have the following semantic representation: [[causer] cause [theme] to move to [goal]]. I illustrate:
Jeg legger barnet i sengen.
“I lay the child in the bed.”
| barnet |
| barn | et |
| child | SGDEF |
| NNEUT |
| sengen |
| seng | en |
| bed | SGDEF |
| Ncomm |
The natural process verbs have the following semantic representation: [[causer] cause [patient] to change from one state to another]. I illustate:
Sola falmer fargene.
“The sun is fading the colours.”
| fargene |
| farg | ene |
| colour | PLDEF |
| NMASC |
The inchoative verbs have the same semantic representation as the natural process verbs ([[causer] cause [patient] to change from one state to another]). I illustrate:
Jeg stopper bilen.
“I stop the car.”
| stopper |
| stopp | er |
| stop | PRES |
| V |
| bilen |
| bil | en |
| car | SGDEF |
| NMASC |
Most of the Norwegian causative verbs have the same form when they are used as causative verbs as when they are used as non-causative verbs. However, some of the verbs display a morphological vowel change. This applies to some of the verbs describing position (legger/ligger and setter/sitter) and some of the natural process verbs (feller/faller, dytter/detter and senker/synker). One natural process verb pair is even more different, namely vekker/våkner, but the verbs are clearly related and undergo the same alternation as the rest of the causative verbs.
Complex Causatives
The complex causatives are divided into three groups based on their semantics: causatives with overt causee, causatives without overt causee and embedded causatives without overt causee.
The causatives with overt causee have the following semantic representation: [[causer] cause [causee] to do VP]. I illustrate:
Jeg lar henne ta oppvasken.
“I let her do the dishes.”
| henne |
| henne |
| her3SGFEMACC |
| PN |
| oppvasken |
| oppvask | en |
| dishes | SGDEF |
| NMASC |
The causatives without overt causee have the following semantic representation: [[causer] cause VP to happen]. I illustrate:
Per fikk reparert bilen.
“Per got the car repaired.”
| reparert |
| reparert |
| repaired |
| PTCP |
| bilen |
| bil | en |
| car | SGDEF |
| NMASC |
The embedded causatives without overt causee, are, as the name indicates, an embedded variety of the causatives without overt causee, and they have the following semantic representation: [[agent] request [[causer] to cause VP to happen]]. I illustrate:
Jeg ber henne om å få reparert bilen.
“I ask her to get the car repaired.”
| henne |
| henne |
| her3SGFEMACC |
| PN |
| reparert |
| reparert |
| repaired |
| PTCP |
| bilen |
| bil | en |
| car | SGDEF |
| NMASC |
When the causee is not overtly expressed it is understood that someone executes the caused event, even if the sentence does not specify who this is.