Classroom:NTNU, LING1113 (2009) - Motion and Space
Definitions
We will define notions of or related to space, deixis and motion. These notions will be used to determine the semantic content of a set of Norwegian (and a few Danish) prepositions.
Spatial concepts
Spatial concepts are in essence relations between two or more entities. Whenever you make a statement about the location of an object, you state the location relative to another object. While you can claim that an object is inside another object, you cannot claim that it is inside, but not of another object. The conception of space incorporated in language is a naive one according to Frawley (1992), proven to be wrong by modern physics, yet beliefs such as 'there is empty space and there are solid objects with no space in them', 'there are absolute directions' and 'it is possible to not be in motion' seem to determine how space is encoded in language, and how it is in fact perceived by human beings.
The object whose location you make a statement about is called Figure, while the other object, which you compare the location of the located object with, is called Ground. The linguistic terms Figure and Ground (for more information see for example Talmy (1975)) reflect the use of these concepts in theories of human perception. For some more information see: Figure and Ground in human perception
References
Frawley, W.1992. Linguistic Semantics Laurence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Talmy, L. 1975. Semantics and syntax of motion. In: Syntax and semantics, vol. 4. J. Kimball, ed. Academic Press.
Reference to PLACES can be given absolute, such as by the phrase in the house or relative, such as by the adverb here. The latter expression can only be understood contextually which makes deictic spacial expressions anaphora. For more information follow the internal link above.
Remoteness is defined as the relative distance between the speaker and the hearer. Languages may encode any number of degrees of remoteness. For more information follow the internal link above.
- There are two directions: movement away from the reference point, and movement towards the reference point. For more information follow the internal link above.
Locations
Topological notions
Lexical semantics distinguishes between several topological notions. Some of them are mentioned in Frawley (1992), such as interiority, coincidence and exteriority. These three locations have in common, that they are not dependent on a viewpoint, that means they are constant no matter where the viewer stands and which reference point (s)he chooses to describe the location in question.
For example, if a cat is located interior to a house, this relation pertains independent of where the speaker and the hearer stand relative to the situation described. The reader might try the same with exterior and coincidence after reading our notions of those concepts below.
If a figure coincides with the Ground, the Figure and Ground share some space. This sharing can mean two things occur in the same space or that they are in some sense attached or related to each other. The space shared can also be an ideal space projected by the Ground. In this case there exist a conventional notions of how big such a projected space is, depending for example on the size of the Ground. The space projected by a fly might not stretch as far as the space projected by a house.
When a Figure is located interior to a ground, the figure can be said to be contained in the Ground. This can be partially as well as totally, and both options imply that the figure must be smaller than the ground. It should be noted, that if the gound is for example a garden and the figure is a person, an interior relation between does not (necessarily) mean that the person is burried in the garden. The person might perfectly well be standing up with the feet being the only body parts interacting physically with the garden. We still think of the person as interior to the garden though, since we think of this interiority as occupying some space inside the area referred to as a garden.
A figure with an exterior relation to its ground is occupying the space which is outside the boarders of the ground. When exteriority is denoted, the figure does not share the space of the ground, though it might happen to share some space projected by the ground, as well as it is might be located far away. The figure is occupying some space which is not contained in the ground when exteriority is denoted.
Projective locations
With projective locations, the value and interpretation varies depending on the frame of reference, or vantage point against which the relationship is judged. Thus the relationship of projective locations varies according to the viewpoint of the viewer, or whether the figure is perceived in relation to the viewer or the ground.
-The figure is located in the area below the ground, where below is defined in terms of the observer's point of view, or as defined by the ground itself.
-The figure is located in front of the ground. In front of is defined in terms of the observer's point of view, or as defined by the ground itself.
-The figure is located over the ground. Over is defined in terms of the observer's point of view, or as defined by the ground itself.
-The figure occupies the space projected behind the ground. Posteriority is in Norwegian (and Danish) defined in terms of the observer's point of view in relation to the ground, or in terms of the relation to the figure itself.
-The figure is located beside the ground. Beside is defined in terms of the observer's point of view, or as defined by the ground itself.
Events
Motion
Motion can be described as dynamic movement through space. Motion entails the displacement of some entity, or conceptually relevant positional change. Motion is usually associated with actives, seeing that more often than not motion entails some kind of action, though certain motions can be described as states.
- The entity that is displaced by the predicate.
- The point from which the figure is moved.
- The point towards which the figure is moving.
- Where the movement happens.
- Path
- The trajectory of the figure.
- By which means movement is made possible. The basic distinction is between vehicular and non-vehicular transportation.
- How motion events are performed in terms of speed and intensity.
- The relationship between a movement and what causes the movement.
Prepositions
locational prepositions
Locational prepositions places an entity in space relative to something else.
'Bak' indicates that the figure has a relationship of posteriority to the ground.
'Blant' indicates that the figure has a relationship of laterality to more than two grounds, which do not coincide
The figure has a close proximity to the ground, which is often animate. The two entities never coincide and the figure is never contained in the ground.
'i' indicates that the figure has a relationship of interiority to the ground.
The figure has a relationship of interiority to the ground, which is an enclosed space. 'Innenfor' does not have any other locational meanings.
The figure is coinciding with the ground, and has a relationship of laterality to it
The figure has a relationship of laterality to two grounds, who do not have a relationship of laterality to each other
The figure has a relationship of exteriority to the ground.
The preposition ovenfor is used to indicate that the relation between the figure and the ground is one of superiority, but not of coincidence.
In simpler terms: Object1 is ovenfor another object if it is located over that object - that is higher than it and in the space above it - but not if Object1 is touching the other object.
The figure and ground are anterior to each other
'På' has a basic meaning which means that the figure is superior to, as well as coinciding with, the ground. However, many other uses of the preposition 'på' are in use in Norwegian today.
The figure has a relationship of exteriority to the ground.
'Under' indicates that the figure has a relationship of inferiority to the ground.
Directional preposition
Directional prepositions combine with verbs and encode direction and additional information to complement the events taking place
Fra encodes the source of a movement, or origin of an entity.
'Mot' indicates that the figure has a relationship of coincidence to the ground.
This expression encodes a path from one end of the ground to another.
Encodes the ground as being the goal of a path.
Encodes the goal of a path that is being accomplished.
Motion Verbs
In this wiki we define Motion Verbs as the verbs - apearing alone or in a complex - as verbs denoting movement. This might be movement from A to B, that is locomotion, or it might be movement inside the same scene, that is single motion. As mentioned above, some motion verbs might be part of a complex and thus denoting the movement in cooperation with a preposition.
Some motion verbs indicate that a path -abstract or concrete- is covered when the action denoted by the verb is carried out. Some prototypes of motion verbs implying a path are 'go' and 'run'. Note that the path is not necessarily explicitly mentioned in the predication sentence indicating that a path is covered; the path is often implied and understood as being present by virtue of the speaker's and hearer's knowledge of the concept denoted by the respective verb.
It might also be the case that there is a goal of the movement denoted by the verb. Again, this goal might not be explicitly uttered; the presence of a goal is understood as implied in the concept expressed by the verb.
To see more on motion in general, please see the chapter on motion.
"Gå" encodes the classical movement of a human figure, by the movement of legs. This does not necessarily encode a path, and is thus a single motion. However, the verb is often used to encode simply path, and not movement of feet.
The synonymous motion verbs "springe" and "løpe" encode motion by the use of feet, where the feet jump up and down from the ground, one foot at the time, in rapid succession. This can be a single motion, but usually encodes a path.
"Dra" and "Fare" are synonymous motion verbs that encode motion with a path moving the figure away from the ground.
This verb usually encodes movement away from a source, often only for a short period of time or swiftly
Encodes movement away from a source, either quickly or from a place from which movement is restricted, or both. It almost always implies the presence of some sentient entity that would try to hinder the theme's movement.
"Komme" is a motion verb which encodes motion of the theme towards the goal.
"Svømme" encodes motion through a liquid ground, and that the theme is completely or almost completely submerged in the liquid through which the movement takes place.
Fly encodes motion through the ground air, without contact with the earth, usually by aerodynamic means.
"Kjøre" encodes motion with vehicular conveyance.
"Sykle" encodes motion by use of bicycle as medium of conveyance.
Ramle encodes non-voluntary motion through the ground air.
The motion verb falle encodes involuntary motion downwards through the ground air.
Encodes gradual downwards uncontrolled movement through a ground
Encodes gradually upwards movement.